Galaxy Distances and Distribution  

In General > s.a. higher-dimensional gravity; observational cosmology.
* Distance determination: For nearby galaxies, variable stars like Cepheids; For other ones, (type Ia) supernovae and Hubble's law.
* 1908: C V I Charlier proposed a hierarchical model.
* 1986: Bubble structure observed from survey of 1100 galaxies near the galactic north pole, with visible light, and 2700 galaxies in another region, with 21 cm radiation; The size of bubbles is as large as 50 Mpc; These could be formed by first generation explosions (quasars, supernovae?).
* 1989: A galaxy in formation seen at 65 Mly, 10 times larger than the Milky Way.
* 1994: Galaxies as faint as magnitude 27 (blue) can be seen with CCDs.
* 1996: Youthful galaxies studied at z 3.5, 15% of present time, when galaxy formation was under way.
* 1998: 0140+326RD1 at z = 5.34, other at z = 6.68 [this must have not been confirmed, see 2002].
* 1999: Information on 5 × 107 galaxies collected by Digital Palomar Sky Survey; the most numerous are dwarves; About 104 redshifts have been measured (notice that z space is not identical with real space, because of virialization).
* 2002: Most distant galaxy so far (not a quasar) seen at z = 6.56, or 15.5 Gly, using Abell 370 cluster as lens.
* 2006: First observational evidence that galaxies are not randomly oriented, but follow dark matter pattern [@ news sr(06)apr].
@ Large-scale structure: de Lapparent et al ApJL(86) [bubble picture]; Coles Nat(90)aug; Hendry & Simmons ViA(95)ap; Pietronero et al ap/95-in; Einasto NAR(01)ap/00, ap/00-in.
@ Cosmic web: Sousbie et al MNRAS-a0809 [evolution]; Aragón-Calvo et al a0809 [spine]; Bregman a0906 [and X-ray telescopes].
@ Voids: Peebles ap/01; Serpico ap/07-in; Tikhonov AL(07)-a0707; von Benda-Beckmann & Mueller a0710/MNRAS; Park & Lee PRL(07) [ellipticity and cosmology]; Triay & Fliche PTPS(08)-a0801 [and the cosmological constant]; Gaite a0802; Foster & Nelson ApJ(09)-a0904 [SDSS, void catalog]; Slosar & White JCAP(09) [alignment of nearby-galaxy spins]; Giovanelli a0909 [Void Phenomenon]; Gaite JCAP(09)-a0911 [statistics]; > s.a. milky way [Local Void].
@ Catalogs, surveys: Bernardi ap/03-in [SDSS]; Lahav & Suto LRR(04) [and cosmology]; Strauss SA(04)feb; Driver et al MNRAS(05)ap [MGC]; Zhan et al ApJ(06)ap/05 [future, applications]; Padmanabhan et al MNRAS(07)ap/06 [SDSS]; SubbaRao & Aragón-Calvo pw(08)dec [maps]; Scranton et al a0902-rp, Myers a0903-rp [case for deep, wide surveys].
@ Books, reviews: Rowan-Robinson 85; Dressler 94 [I]; Saslaw 00; Lahav & Soto LRR(04) [redshift surveys].
@ Rotation, alignment: Lee ApJL(04)ap [rotation alignment]; Longo ap/07, a0812, a0904, a0908 [handedness and preferred axis].
@ Related topics: Kraan-Korteweg et al ap/98-in [on other side of Milky Way]; Shandarin JCAP(09)-a0812 [great walls].
> Online resources: The Extragalactic Distance Database site.

Groups, Clusters, Superclusters, Filaments, Sheets > s.a. cosmological constant; Intergalactic Matter.
* Catalogs: Abell.
* Largest structure: In 1999, a filament at least 4 × 108 ly long, perhaps 109 ly, in Aquarius, with at least 105 galaxies.
@ Dynamics and implications: Jackson MNRAS(72)-a0810 [velocity dispersion and "Fingers-of-God" effect]; Bahcall ap/98-in; Schindler ap/00-in, ap/01-in [simulations], ap/01-in [rev]; Reed et al MNRAS-a0804 [first galaxies, simulations]; Yoo et al a0907/PRD [general-relativistic effects].
@ Description and detection: Pimbblet PASA(05)ap [filaments]; Noh & Lee ap/06/ApJL [local pancakes]; Simon et al ApJ(06)ap [fundamental line for disk galaxies]; Sarkar & Bharadwaj MNRAS(09)-a0812 [local dimension]; Makarov & Karachentsev a0908-in [groups in the Local Supercluster]; Gay et al a0910/MNRAS [filamentary environment].
@ Historical: Biviano ap/97-in [Coma cluster].
@ Related topics: Pavlovski et al MNRAS-a0709, a0709/MNRAS [buoyant bubbles]; Brosch a0906-in [truly isolated galaxies].

Models of Distribution > s.a. critical phenomena; dark matter; fractal systems; voronoi tiling.
* 1997: Distribution looks scale-invariant up to 150 Mpc and possibly 1000 Mpc, the observational limit, with fractal D 2.
* 2009: According to SDSS DR6 data, the galaxy distribution is homogeneous at length-scales greater than 70 h–1 Mpc.
@ General references: Elizalde & Gaztañaga PLA(88); Bond et al Nat(96)ap/95 [web]; Bershadskii PLA(96) [fractal-homogeneity phase transition]; Einasto et al Nat(97)jan [120-Mpc periodicity]; van de Weygaert ap/02-in, ap/02-in [Voronoi-froth]; Eckmann et al ap/03 [fractal dimension]; Ribeiro A&A(05)ap/04; Wuensche et al PhyA(04) [and non-extensive statistics]; Gabrielli et al 05 [r PT(06)dec]; Romano PRD(07)ap [homogeneity tests]; Sarkar et al a0906 [analysis of SDSS DR6 data].
@ Correlation functions: Buryak & Doroshkevich A&A(96)ap/95; Dodelson & Gaztañaga MNRAS(00)ap/99; Gaztañaga et al MNRAS(05)ap.
@ Scaling: Borgani PRP(95); Baugh et al MNRAS(04)ap [hierarchical, 2dF]; Jones et al RMP(04)ap [rev].
@ In favor of fractal: Coleman & Pietronero PRP(92); Pietronero et al ap/96-in; Durrer et al EPL(97)ap; Montuori et al ap/97; Sylos Labini et al PRP(98)ap/97; Ribeiro & Miguelote BJP(98)ap; Durrer & Sylos Labini A&AL-ap/98 [and homogeneous FRW models]; Sylos Labini ap/98-in, ap/98-in; Pietronero & Sylos Labini ap/98-in; Célérier & Thieberger A&A(01) [curvature corrections], ap/05-in [scale-dependent dimension]; Joyce et al A&A(05)ap; Sylos Labini et al EPL(09)-a0805, EPL(09)-a0812 [fluctuations at all scales], a0910-in.
@ Against fractal: Davis ap/96-in; Guzzo NA-ap/97; Cappi et al A&A-ap/98; Martínez et al MNRAS(98)ap.

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