Galaxy Distances and Distribution

In General > s.a. higher-dimensional gravity; observational cosmology.
* 1908: C V I Charlier proposed a hierarchical model.
* 1986: Bubble structure observed from survey of 1100 galaxies near the galactic north pole, with visible light, and 2700 galaxies in another region, with 21 cm radiation; The size of bubbles is as large as 50 Mpc; These could be formed by first generation explosions (quasars, supernovae?).
* 1989: A galaxy in formation seen at 65 Mly, 10 times larger than the Milky Way.
* 1994: Galaxies as faint as magnitude 27 (blue) can be seen with CCD's.
* 1996: Youthful galaxies studied at z 3.5, 15% of present time, when galaxy formation was under way.
* 1998: 0140+326RD1 at z = 5.34, other at z = 6.68 [this must have not been confirmed, see 2002].
* 1999: Information on 5 × 10⁷ galaxies collected by Digital Palomar Sky Survey; the most numerous are dwarves; About 10⁴ redshifts have been measured (notice that z space is not identical with real space, because of virialization).
* 2002: Most distant galaxy so far (not a quasar) seen at z = 6.56, or 15.5 Gly, using Abell 370 cluster as lens.
* 2006: First observational evidence that galaxies are not randomly oriented, but follow dark matter pattern [@ news sr(06)apr].
@ Large-scale structure: de Lapparent et al ApJL(86) [bubble picture]; Coles Nat(90)aug; Hendry & Simmons ViA(95)ap; Pietronero et al ap/95-in; Einasto NAR(01)ap/00, ap/00-in.
@ Voids: Peebles ap/01; Serpico ap/07-in; Tikhonov AL(07)-a0707; von Benda-Beckmann & Mueller a0710-MNRAS; Gaite a0802.
@ Catalogs, surveys: Bernardi ap/03-in [SDSS]; Lahav & Suto LRR(04) [and cosmology]; Strauss SA(04)feb; Driver et al MNRAS(05)ap [MGC]; Zhan et al ApJ(06)ap/05 [future, applications]; Padmanabhan et al ap/06-MNRAS [SDSS].
@ Books, reviews: Rowan-Robinson 85; Dressler 94 [I]; Saslaw 00; Lahav & Soto LRR(04) [redshift surveys].
@ Related topics: Kraan-Korteweg et al ap/98-in [on other side of Milky Way]; Park & Lee PRL(07) [void ellipticity and cosmology]; Longo ap/07 [handedness and preferred axis]; Triay & Fliche a0801-PTPS [voids and the cosmological constant].

Groups, Clusters, Superclusters, Filaments, Sheets > s.a. Intergalactic Matter.
* Catalogs: Abell.
* Largest structure: In 1999, a filament at least 4 × 10⁸ ly long, perhaps 10⁹ ly, in Aquarius, with at least 10⁵ galaxies.
@ Dynamics and implications: Bahcall ap/98-in; Schindler ap/00-in, ap/01-in [simulations], ap/01-in [rev]; Lee ApJL(04)ap [rotation alignment]; Reed et al a0804-MNRAS [first galaxies, simulations].
@ Description and detection: Pimbblet PASA(05)ap [filaments]; Noh & Lee ap/06/ApJL [local pancakes]; Simon et al ApJ(06)ap [fundamental line for disk galaxies].
@ Historical: Biviano ap/97-in [Coma cluster].
@ Related topics: Pavlovski et al a0709-MNRAS, a0709-MNRAS [buoyant bubbles]; > s.a. cosmological constant.

Models of Distribution > s.a. critical phenomena; dark matter; fractal systems; voronoi tiling.
* 1997: Distribution looks scale-invariant up to 150 Mpc and possibly 1000 Mpc, the observational limit, with fractal D 2.
@ General references: Elizalde & Gaztañaga PLA(88); Bond et al Nat(96)ap/95 [web]; Bershadskii PLA(96) [fractal-homogeneity phase transition]; Einasto et al Nat(97) [120-Mpc periodicity]; van de Weygaert ap/02-in, ap/02-in [Voronoi-froth]; Eckmann et al ap/03 [fractal dimension]; Ribeiro A&A(05)ap/04; Wuensche et al PhyA(04) [and non-extensive statistics]; Gabrielli et al 05 [r PT(06)dec]; Romano ap/07 [homogeneity tests].
@ Correlation functions: Buryak & Doroshkevich A&A(96)ap/95; Dodelson & Gaztañaga MNRAS(00)ap/99; Gaztañaga et al MNRAS(05)ap.
@ Scaling: Borgani PRP(95); Baugh et al MNRAS(04)ap [hierarchical, 2dF]; Jones et al RMP(04)ap [rev].
@ In favor of fractal: Coleman & Pietronero PRP(92); Pietronero et al ap/96-in; Durrer et al EPL(97)ap; Montuori et al ap/97; Sylos Labini et al PRP(98)ap/97; Ribeiro & Miguelote BJP(98)ap; Durrer & Sylos Labini ap/98/A&AL [and homogeneous FRW models]; Sylos Labini ap/98-in, ap/98-in; Pietronero & Sylos Labini ap/98; Célérier & Thieberger A&A(01) [curvature corrections], ap/05-in [scale-dependent dimension]; Joyce et al A&A(05)ap; Sylos Labini et al a0805 [fluctuations at all scales].
@ Against fractal: Davis ap/96-in; Guzzo ap/97; Cappi et al ap/98/A&A; Martínez et al MNRAS(98)ap.

Local Group and Other Structure
* Composition: 36 galaxies as of 01.2000, including M31 Andromeda (65% of mass), M32 dwarf elliptical satellite of M31, Milky Way (30%), the Magellanic Clouds (d_LMC = 50,600 2,400 pc), recently discovered Cetus dwarf spheroidal, SagDIG, etc. Looks "isolated in the general field," as Hubble claimed.
* Large Magellanic Cloud: Less evolved than MW; d 168,000 ly; contains significantly less heavy elements.
@ General references: Mateo ARAA(98)ap [dwarf galaxies]; van den Bergh ap/99/AAR, PASP(00)ap; Grebel ap/00-in; Walker LNP(03)ap [distances]; Aparicio ap/03-in [rev]; Chodorowski & Ciecielag ap/03 [acceleration]; Karachentsev ap/04/ApJ [and other nearby]; Grebel ap/06-in [and other groups]; Brunthaler et al ap/06-in [kinematical model]; Pasetto & Chiosi ap/06/A&A [statistical distribution].
@ Local Void: Iwata et al ap/05-in; Tully a0708-in [evacuation, really empty].
@ Magellanic Clouds: Walker ap/98-in, van den Bergh ap/98-in [distances].

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