Gravitational Lensing

In General > s.a. aharonov-bohm effect; dark matter.
* Idea: The lens-like effect produced by the deflection of waves (especially light) along different paths.
* Remark: They are not linear lenses, and are not described by Gaussian optics, but can use Fermat's principle.
* Theoretical results: There is always an odd number of images, unless they are formed by a black hole; Has enriched the field of geometrical optics.
* Experimental results: VLA surveys yield few lenses; the universe cannot be closed by masses of 10¹¹–10¹² M_Sun; They allow us to make spectra of distant (z > 2) galaxies, because of amplification (they are like 100-Kpc telescopes); Many double images of galaxies (some with opposite parity) have been seen; The first complete Einstein ring has been seen, and the (extended) source object reconstructed.
* Future: Look for cosmic strings with the space telescope; dark matter.

In Specific Spacetimes > s.a. observational cosmology; gravitational wave propagation; tests of general relativity with light.
@ By black holes: Virbhadra & Ellis PRD(00)ap/99 [Schwarzschild]; Eiroa et al PRD(02)gq [RN]; Vázquez & Esteban NCB(04)gq/03 [Kerr]; Whisker PRD(05)ap/04 [brane world]; Eiroa PRD(06) [Einstein-Born-Infeld]; Konoplya PLB(07) [magnetized]; Sereno PRD(08) [with cosmological constant, Schwarzschild-de Sitter].
@ By wormholes: Eiroa et al MPLA(01)gq, Torres et al MPLA(01)gq [chromaticity]; Safonova et al PRD(02)gq/01; Shatskiy AR(04)ap; Tejeiro & Larrañaga gq/05; Nandi et al PRD(06)gq; > s.a. wormholes.
@ Other isolated objects: Virbhadra & Ellis PRD(02) [naked singularity]; Lake PRD(02)gq/01, a0711 [with cosmological constant]; Palle APS(05)ap [quadrupole potentials]; Amore et al PRD(07) [compact objects]; Park a0804 [with cosmological constant].
@ Cosmic strings: de Laix PRD(97), et al PRL(97); Bernardeau & Uzan PRD(01)ap/00, ap/00-in; Shlaer & Tye PRD(05) [and instability of closed timelike curves]; Agol et al PRD(06) [HST candidate excluded]; Gasparini et al a0710-MNRAS; > s.a. tests of general relativity with light [conical defects].
@ Gravitational waves: Mollerach PRD(98)ap/97; Faraoni IJMPD(98), & Gunzig A&A(98)ap [scalar-tensor].
@ Cosmological models: Wambsganss et al ap/96/ApJ; Kaiser ApJ(98)ap/96.
@ Inhomogeneous, cumulative: Holz & Wald PRD(98)ap/97, Wald gq/98-in [statistical distribution]; Bergstrom et al ap/99/A&A; Claudel PRS(00)gq [including swiss cheese]; Jain et al PRD(02)ap [brane world]; > s.a. relativistic cosmology [local models].
@ Related topics: Zaldarriaga PRD(00)ap/99 [and cmb]; Safonova et al MPLA(01)ap [violations of energy conditions].

Microlensing > s.a. cosmic strings; dark matter.
* Idea: Gravitational lensing by small objects.
* History: 1936, Paper by Einstein & other guy; 1986, Paczynski proposed use for dark matter detection; 1999, Planet around a binary system found with it.
@ Reviews: Paczynski & Wambsganss PW(93); Evans ap/96-in; Gould ap/96-in, ap/00-in; Roulet & Mollerach PRP(97); Mao ap/99-in; Paczynski ap/99-in; Sackett ap/00-in; Evans ap/03-in; Paczynski ap/03 [and future]; Rattenbury MPLA(06) [planetary]; Zakharov ap/06-in; Gould a0803-in.
@ Theory, formalism: Gould ap/00/ApJ; Asada ApJ(02)ap [perturbative].
@ Of gravitational waves: Bar-Kana PRD(96)ap [limits on background]; De Paolis et al A&A(01)ap/00.
@ Related topics: Gould ap/96-in [imaging binaries, quasars]; Jetzer HPA(96)ap, ap/97-in [dark matter search]; MACHO collab ap/97-in [data]; Paczynski ap/97/ApJL [SIM plans]; Han et al MNRAS(00)ap/99, ApJ(04)ap/03 [free-floating planets]; Smith et al MNRAS(03)ap/02 [acceleration and parallax effects]; Kuijken et al a0707-MNRAS [by cosmic strings].

Weak Lensing
* Idea: Gravitational lensing that produces a small distorsion in images of background galaxies; It cannot be recognized as lensing on the basis of a single galaxy image, but one uses the statistical properties of many galaxies in a region of the sky.
@ General references: Bartelmann & Schneider PRP(01); Mellier & van Waerbeke CQG(02)in.
@ In various gravity theories: Acquaviva et al PRD(04)ap, ap/04-in.
@ In cosmology: Massey et al ap/04-in [dark matter and dark energy]; Munshi et al PRP(08), Hoekstra & Jain a0805-ARNPS [rev].

References
@ General: Ohanian AJP(87); Blandford et al Sci(89); in Texas XVII(95); Schechter ap/99-in [review]; Blandford PASP(01)ap [future]; Wambsganss SA(01)nov; Perlick LRR(04) [spacetime perspective]; Sauer a0704 [history, Einstein and Nova Geminorum 1912]; Jain NJP(07) [focus issue].
@ Theory: Frittelli & Newman PRD(99)gq/98; Kling et al PRD(00)gq/99 [iterative]; Frittelli et al PRD(00)gq [Schwarzschild], PRD(01)gq/00, PRD(01)gq/00 [image distorsion], PRD(02)gq [non-perturbative]; Kochanek et al ap/00/ApJ [Einstein rings]; Hasse & Perlick GRG(02)gq/01 [and centrifugal force reversal]; Frittelli MNRAS(03)ap [by moving lenses]; Suyama et al PRD(05)ap [wave propagation and thin lenses]; Amore & Arceo PRD(06), Amore et al PRD(06) [analytical expressions]; Werner mp/07/JMP [topological invariants, fixed point theorem].
@ Intros, reviews: Turner SA(88)jul; Narayan & Bartelmann ap/96; Straumann ap/97; Schneider et al 92; Wambsganss LRR(98)ap; Fluke et al ap/98/MNRAS [new method]; Mollerach & Roulet IJMPA(00)ap/99; Wambsganss ap/00-in, ap/06-in; Kuijken ap/03-ln; Koopmans & Blandford PT(04)jun [and applications]; Falco NJP(05).
@ Of other electromagnetic waves: Lu & Pen a0710-MNRAS [21-cm radiation, diffuse].
@ Of gravitational waves: Wang et al PRL(96); De Paolis et al A&A(02)ap.
@ And other theories: Sereno PRD(03)ap [metric theories]; Schimd et al PRD(05)ap/04 [scalar-tensor including quintessence]; Keeton & Petters PRD(05), PRD(06) [use to test gravity theories]; Capozziello et al PRD(06)ap [4th-order gravity]; Zhao ap/06-ln, Chen a0712-JCAP [TeVeS]; Ruggiero a0712 [f(R), Palatini approach]; Schmidt a0805-PRD [f(R) gravity, DGP, TeVeS].
@ Related topics: Asada & Kasai PTP(00)ap [lens rotation]; Frutos-Alfaro AJP(01)ap/02 [visualization program]; Ciufolini & Ricci gq/03/PRL [and time delay]; Nemiroff ApJ(05)ap [magnifying gravity]; > s.a. higher-dimensional gravity; philosophy of science; tests of lorentz invariance.

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